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than it appears in the garb of a fictitious and affected archaism。
§ 7
A history which aspires to traverse long periods of time； or to be universal； must indeed forego the
attempt to give individual representations of the past as it actually existed。 It must foreshorten its
pictures by abstractions； and this includes not merely the omission of events and deeds； but
whatever is involved in the fact that Thought is； after all； the most trenchant epitomist。 A battle； a
great victory； a siege； no longer maintains its original proportions； but is put off with a bare
mention。 When Livy e。g。 tells us of the wars with the Volsci； we sometimes have the brief
announcement： “This year war was carried on with the Volsci。”
2。 Pragmatical History
§ 8
A second species of Reflective History is what we may call the Pragmatical。 When we have to
deal with the Past； and occupy ourselves with a remote world a Present rises into being for the
mind … produced by its own activity； as the reward of its labour。 The occurrences are； indeed；
various； but the idea which pervades them … their deeper import and connection … is one。 This
takes the occurrence out of the category of the Past and makes it virtually Present。 Pragmatical
（didactic） reflections； though in their nature decidedly abstract； are truly and indefeasibly of the
Present； and quicken the annals of the dead Past with the life of today。 Whether； indeed such
reflections are truly interesting and enlivening； depends on the writer's own spirit。 Moral reflections
must here be specially noticed； … the moral teaching expected from history； which latter has not
unfrequently been treated with a direct view to the former。 It may be allowed that examples of
virtue elevate the soul； and are applicable in the moral instructions of children for impressing
excellence upon their minds。 But the destinies of peoples and states； their interests； relations； and
the plicated issue of their affairs； present quite another field。 Rulers； Statesmen； Nations； are
wont to be emphatically mended to the teaching which experience offers in history。 But what
experience and history teach is this； … that peoples and governments never have learned anything
from history； or acted on principles deduced from it。 Each period is involved in such peculiar
circumstances； exhibits a condition of things so strictly idiosyncratic； that its conduct must be
regulated by considerations connected with itself； and itself alone。 Amid the pressure of great
events； a general principle gives no help。 It is useless to revert to similar circumstances in the Past。
The pallid shades of memory struggle in vain with the life and freedom of the Present。 Looked at in
this light； nothing can be shallower than the oft…repeated appeal to Greek and Roman examples
during the French Revolution。 Nothing is more diverse than the genius of those nations and that of
our times。 Johannes v。 Müller； in his Universal History as also in his History of Switzerland； had
such moral aims in view。 He designed to prepare a body of political doctrines for the instruction of
princes； governments and peoples （he formed a special collection of doctrines and reflections； …
frequently giving us in his correspondence the exact number of apophthegms which he had
piled in a week）； but he cannot reckon this part of his labour as among the best that he
acplished。 It is only a thorough； liberal； prehensive view of historical relations （such e。g。 as
we find in Montesquieu's Esprit des Loix）； that can give truth and interest to reflections of this
order。 One Reflective History therefore supersedes another。 The materials are patent to every
writer： each is likely enough to believe himself capable of arranging and manipulating them； and we
may expect that each will insist upon his own spirit as that of the age in question。 Disgusted by
such reflective histories readers have often returned to a with pleasure to a narrative adopting no
particular point of view。 These certainly have their value； but for the most part they offer only
material for history。 We Germans are not content with such。 The French； on the other hand；
display great genius in reanimating bygone times； and in bringing the past to bear upon the present
conditions of things。
3。 Critical History
§ 9
The third form of Reflective History is the Critical。 This deserves mention as pre…eminently the
mode of treating history； now current in Germany。 It is not history itself that is here presented。 We
might more properly designate it as a History of History； a criticism of historical narratives and an
investigation of their truth and credibility。 Its peculiarity in point of fact and of intention； consists in
the acuteness with which the writer extorts something from the records which was not in the
matters recorded。 The French have given as much that is profound and judicious in this class of
position。 But they have not endeavoured to pass a merely critical procedure for substantial
history。 They have duly presented their judgments in the form of critical treatises。 Among us； the
so…called “higher criticism；” which reigns supreme in the domain of philology； has also taken
possession of our historical literature。 This “higher criticism” has been the pretext for introducing
all the anti…historical monstrosities that a vain imagination could suggest。 Here we have the other
method of making the past a living reality； putting subjective fancies in the place of historical data；
fancies whose merit is measured by their boldness； that is； the scantiness of the particulars on
which they are based； and the peremptoriness with which they contravene the best established
facts of history。
§ 10
4。 The last species of Reflective History announces its fragmentary character on the very face of it。
It adopts an abstract position； yet； since it takes general points of view （e。g。 as the History of Art；
of Law； of Religion）； it forms a transition to the Phil